Biological research stands at a juncture: technologies exist and are constantly emerging that could reduce and even replace the use of animal testing. Yet patent law, which is designed to incentivise innovation, may actually be obstructing the technology's adoption.
The 3Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement of animals in research) are central to contemporary science policy. KCL has recently launched a new interdisciplinary centre dedicated to the topic, and the proposed supervisor is a member of its steering group. Governments, regulators and scientists are driving change for animal welfare. The UK government has prioritised alternatives to animal testing, and the US and EU medicines regulators have signalled a shift towards new technologies, including organ-on-chips and AI-based in silico models.
This project will examine the extent to which patent law is aligned and in tension with the objectives of the 3Rs. For instance, it will analyse how patentable subject matter (including the patentability of life forms and computer simulations) and the governance of 3R technologies shape both the development and accessibility of the technology. A primary concern is that patent rights may incentivise the technology but also limit access, leaving some researchers to rely on animal experimentation and raising the possibility that patents indirectly contribute to preventable animal harm.
Although the relationship between patents and the 3Rs has not been directly studied, the project will build on established literature on research tools and licensing mechanisms (e.g., clearinghouses and patent pledges). The project will make an interdisciplinary, policy-relevant contribution at the intersection of intellectual property, technological innovation, and animal welfare.
Value of the award: This is a fully funded studentship that includes 3 years of fees + a maintenance stipend at the UKRI level (2026-2027 rate is 23,805) for three years with small, annual inflationary increases.
The project will be supervised by Dr Johnathon Liddicoat and Professor Tanya Aplin.
Eligibility: Any nationality. Applicants should have an interest in intellectual property law, innovation, technology regulation, animal welfare, or related areas of legal research. The dedicated PhD project will examine the relationship between patent law and the 3Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement of animals in research), with a particular focus on how patent rights affect the development and accessibility of alternatives to animal testing.
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PhD Studentship: Incentives and Barriers: Patent Law in the Age of the 3Rs employer: King's College London
At King’s College London, we pride ourselves on being an exceptional employer that fosters a collaborative and innovative work culture. Our commitment to employee growth is evident through comprehensive training opportunities and a supportive environment that encourages professional development. Located in the heart of London, our institution offers unique advantages such as access to world-class resources and a vibrant community dedicated to advancing research and education.
